Who Sings on the Road Again What Sport Had Most Injuries in 2016
Abstract
This newspaper presents findings from a survey that assessed university students' opinions about sports injury. Specifically, the paper seeks to understand whether academy students who participate in sports at unlike levels would cull to participate while injured, and who or what influences these decisions. An online survey was administered to 275 academy students. Results indicate that the concept of the "sports ethic" was a major determinant in respondents' reported willingness to play through injuries. The sports ethic influenced participants at all levels of sport (casual, amateur, and professional). Nosotros suggest that once the sports ethic is internalized, it may counter the potential buffering capacity of injury prevention programs. The implications of these findings for injury prevention education are assessed.
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Jessiman-Perreault, K. and Godley, J. (2016) Playing through the Pain: A Academy-Based Study of Sports Injury. Advances in Concrete Educational activity, 6, 178-194. doi: x.4236/ape.2016.63020.
Received 18 July 2016; accepted 1 August 2016; published 4 Baronial 2016
1. Introduction
Sports injury is regarded by many as an unavoidable office of sports participation, and has been a subject of sociological test for over twenty years (Nixon, 1992; Nixon, 1993; Curry, 1993; Curry & Strauss, 1994) . Although media stories often focus on injuries in elite sports, sports-related injury occurs at all levels of sports and in all age groups. Young (1993) gives the example that all National Football game League (NFL) players can expect to get at to the lowest degree one injury in their 4-month season. However, sports injury is also pervasive at the amateur level and often occurs during coincidental play. According to one 1990 report, well-nigh half of all non-competitive athletes endure injuries that prevent temporary participation (Hardy & Crace, 1990) .
Sports injury as well occurs in almost every age group. In an international meta-analysis of injury incidence rates among children and youth, researchers found that on average boys in ice hockey experienced between 5 - 34.iv injuries per 1000 hours of exposure, three.four - 13.3 injuries in rugby and 2.iii - 7.9 injuries in soccer. For girls, soccer had the highest incidence of injuries (2.v - ten.six per 1000 hours of exposure). Girls playing basketball game had between three.6 and 4.1 injuries and gymnasts suffered 0.5 - 4.ane injuries per 1000 hours of exposure (Caine, Maffulli, & Caine, 2008) . According to Pargman, the number of sports-related injuries and illnesses at all ages has increased over the by fifteen to 20 years (Pargman, 2007) . Athletes as immature as nine years of age accept been shown to have pain and injury as being an inevitable and acceptable part of the sport (Singer, 2004) . Multiple theories accept been postulated to explain how this mental attitude is instilled within young sports participants at all levels of competition.
Some researchers have argued that the media has normalized injury as routine for athletes (Morse, 1983; Nixon, 1993; Young, 2012) . In 1979, Jack Youngblood, a defensive terminate NFL player, played in three games and a major tournament on a broken leg that was braced and taped, but non medically treated until the end of the season. Kerri Strug famously vaulted in the 1996 Olympic Games with 2 torn ligaments in her ankle. The media lauded both athletes as heroes and they were praised for their commitment to their sport. Strug was featured on the embrace of the Daily News Sport in 1996, waving to the crowd while being carried by her coach, her leg leap, underneath the headline "Kerri Strug stands tall on injured ankle, leads U.Southward. gymnastics to squad gold at 1996 Atlanta Olympics" (Bondy, 1996) . This glorification of injury is by no means limited to loftier-stake compe- titions. Recently, Australian university rugby player Georgia Page became an internet sensation when she refused to stop playing afterwards breaking her nose during a match against the United states. Folio was dubbed as "the Rugby State of war Goddess" and was praised for making two more burdensome tackles while blood streamed downwardly her face up (Groom, 2015) . This type of media attention may reinforce behaviour that could be hazardous to young players' concrete and mental wellness (Granquist, Harrison-Utley, Kenow, & Ostrowski, 2014) .
There is a growing push in Canadian society today to get kids active in order to curb the rates of babyhood obesity. In 2010, all of the Federal, Provincial and Municipal Ministries of Health or Health Promotion adopted a framework to promote healthy body weight with a particular emphasis on curbing childhood obesity (Public Health Agency of Canada, 2012) . This major push to become children active could have negative consequences if the sports culture that they are inducted into is a culture which pushes participants to disregard their physical limits and injuries in guild to compete. Condom Kids, a not-profit arrangement dedicated to preventing childhood accidents, reported that in a survey of 752 youth sports coaches in the Us, nigh half reported being pressured, most notably by parents (but sometimes by the child), to play an injured child during a game (Safe Kids, 2014) . Therefore, the source of the push for athletes to play through injury may not be coming straight from the athlete themselves but from their sport social networks. These networks can include parents, coaches, teammates, and trainers (Nixon, 1992) .
This paper will examine whether university students who participate in sports at a variety of skill levels would agree to play while injured, and what influences these decisions. The goal of this paper is to first assess whether respondents perceive that they would play while injured. Second, nosotros will investigate the psychological, situational, and inter-personal factors that influence participants' perceptions of playing while injured.
ii. Literature Review
To better empathize why those who participate in sports might willingly use behaviours that could harm or hurt their bodies and health, we examine the following iv concepts from the literature: the sports ethic; athletic identity; the culture of gamble; and the influence of others. These concepts, which are linked, have each been hypothesized to explain why players are willing to play while injured (Hughes & Coakley, 1991; Nixon, 1992; Safai, 2003) .
2.one. The Sports Ethic
The term "the sports ethic" was originally coined by Robert Hughes and Jay Coakley to synthesize the core norms that participants use to identify themselves equally members of sports culture (Hughes & Coakley, 1991) . Four cadre ideas underlie the sports ethic: making sacrifices for the game; striving for distinction; accepting risks and playing through the pain; and refusing to accept limits in the pursuit of possibilities (Hughes & Coakley, 1991) .
Offset, the sports ethic involves making sacrifices for your sport. In guild to exist considered a "real athlete," or one worthy of development and attending, you must prioritize your sport higher up all else. Athletes must demonstrate an unwavering commitment to their sport and in doing so must make sacrifices. The 2nd idea underlying the sports ethic involves striving for distinction. The ultimate mark of success in sport for athletes is winning, which includes winning competitions, breaking records, and pushing the limits of the sport. The tertiary idea underlying the sports ethic is of item focus in this newspaper, as it involves accepting the risks associated with sport and playing through the pain. Hughes and Coakley argue that athletes accept risks and play through pain both because of internal and external (teammates and coaches) pressures (1991). The final thought underlying the sports ethic is that athletes will accept no obstacle while pursuing their sport, even when the odds are against them, for example, later on suffering a debilitating injury.
Over conformity to the sports ethic can take negative physical and emotional consequences (Granquist, Harrison-Utley, Kenow, & Ostrowski, 2014) . Some examples of over conformity to the sport ethic include: risking injury to compete; avoiding medical treatment; winning regardless of physical costs; playing through the pain; avoiding using protective gear; and avoiding taping previous injuries (Hughes & Coakley, 1991; Miller, 2008) .
ii.2. Athletic Identity
Able-bodied identity is defined by Brewer, Van Raalte and Linder every bit "the degree to which an private identifies with the athletic role" (1993, p. 237). While a potent athletic identity tin can provide motivation and bulldoze that is needed to succeed in sport, it can also be detrimental and lead players to push their bodies beyond what is safe in social club to maintain their athletic identity.
According to Malcolm (2003), those who place strongly with their athletic identity are more likely to prefer an attitude of "toughing out" an injury. These individuals are likewise more likely to participate in their sport to an extreme where it may be physically damaging (Brewer, van Raalte, & Linder, 1993) . Playing through the pain for these participants may be a rational conclusion in the short term to maintain their athletic identity, but they may non be emotionally or psychologically prepared if they sustain a debilitating injury that forces them to go out their sport and requite up their able-bodied identity (Leddy, Lambert, & Ogles, 1994) .
Curry and Strauss (1994) and Roderick, Waddington and Parker (2000) studied athletes at American colleges and universities and English professional soccer players respectively, and plant that injury was accepted equally a function of the game and players who did non react as much to pain and injury were shown to be possessing the values of "true athletes" (Curry & Strauss, 1994 ; Roderick, Waddington, & Parker, 2000) .
Young (2012) has also suggested that the athletic identity is part of hegemonic masculinity. He suggests that playing through the pain or accepting no limits in the pursuit of winning can exist seen equally a way to bear witness one's prowess or maleness (Young, 2012) . Young writes: "Sport thus becomes viewed as a context for the expression and reproduction of hegemonic forms of masculinity where violence, pain, and injury are legitimate and, indeed, "make sense." Male person athletes unwilling to conform to such standards of "manliness" may get mocked, ostracized or even drop out altogether" (Young, 2012: p. 103) .
Moreover, it has been suggested that since sport has traditionally been seen as a male pursuit (Hargreaves, 1994; Kimmel, 2005; Messner, 1989) , it has been congenital on the male's social expectations of the sport. Therefore, the concept of the athlete is tightly connected with characteristics of hegemonic masculinity (Kimmel, 2005) . This relationship betwixt traditional expressions of masculinity and sport has been called the masculinity-sport nexus (Berg, Migliaccio, & Anzini-Varesio, 2014) . This nexus is often "invisible" to the full general population, and the norms are seen as "part of the game" rather than being distinctly gendered (Connell, 2005) . This nexus both excludes and restricts women in sport.
2.3. Civilisation of Adventure
Nixon (1993) and Safai (2003) have written nearly a split up but related concept that must be addressed when examining why sports' participants play while injured―the concept of sport existence a "culture of risk". A culture of chance is described as a set of behavior that participants are socialized into that encompasses the acceptance of risk, pain, and injury (Nixon, 1993) . The emphasis in these beliefs is on the importance of playing while injured and playing through the hurting. This culture is shown when injured players who take themselves out of a competition or game are mocked by others in the athletic community and sometimes restricted from certain benefits (such as placement in line upwardly, or a starting position) and when those who play through injury are regarded as heroes (Ginis & Leary, 2004) .
Young explains: "... sport occurs in a cultural context that normalizes and glorifies risk, pain, and injury." (Immature, 2012: p. 102) . Thus the culture of risk creates an environment where players are encouraged to participate in a sport while injured.
two.4. Influence of Others
According to Malcom (2006) , individuals are socialized into playing through hurting by parents, coaches, officials, teammates, and others involved in the sport. Specifically, coaches socialize their players by ignoring their complaints about pain. Teammates do then by downplaying previous injuries, and harassing those who complain about injuries (Malcom, 2006) . Even trained medical professionals such as physicians can shape a participant's decision to play through pain. For example, when asked to annotate on Celtics point guard Rajon Rondo's decision to continue to play in the fourth quarter later dislocating his shoulder in the third, Celtics chief medical officer Brian P. McKeon was quoted saying "Part of what makes an athlete an athlete is the power to play through pain" (Brogan, 2012) . The example set past Rondo and McKeon has a trickle-down outcome on amateurs and young adults who idolize sports stars such as Rondo and consume sports media. Nixon (1992) also argues that athletes are surrounded by social relationships ("sportsnets") that may force per unit area them to play while injured (likewise run across Young, 2012 ).
In conclusion, while many players may believe that it is their own determination whether they will play while injured or not, their socialization into the sports ethic and the civilization of run a risk that sport is embedded in, along with their own sense of their athletic identity and the influence of others, may create a situation where the simply pick for them is to go along to play. Pain is normalized through external institutional settings as well as self-imposed values that athletes accept as being a part of sports early (Immature, 2012) . Young writes, "Such normalization processes and value systems, which brand themselves known to many recreational and amateur athletes equally choices, become systematized every bit prerequisites at the elite, and certainly the professional person level" (Young, 2012: p. 103) . Our study will examine whether these processes and value systems extend to casual and recreational sports participants.
2.5. Research Objectives
Each of these factors―the sports ethic, athletic identity, the civilisation of take chances, and the influence of others―may contribute to an individual's determination to play while injured. Previous studies have examined these factors in the context of high level professional athletes, ordinarily examining athletes of one gender within a specific sport. For case, Malcom (2006) examined female person baseball players, Sabo (1986) examined male football players, and Berg, Migliaccio and Anzini-Vanesio (2014) examined female football game players. For this project, we surveyed students of both sexes, also as those who participate at various levels and in various types of sports. The aim of our written report is to ameliorate identify whether sports participants across the power spectrum are at hazard to play through injury. Understanding who is willing to play while injured and what influences these decisions may permit for researchers and practitioners to ameliorate target interventions to those individuals in an attempt to reduce injury. This paper examines two main research questions using data from University of Calgary students:
1) Who reports existence willing to play while injured?
2) Why do they written report that they are willing to play through injury, i.e., who or what influences this decision?
3. Methods
three.1. Survey―Respondents and Musical instrument
We recruited volunteer respondents (N = 275) to consummate a novel online self-administered survey. Both undergraduate and graduate University of Calgary students were targeted through a diverseness of recruitment methods, including: disseminating business cards on campus; messaging Academy of Calgary educatee groups through Facebook; introducing the survey in front of several Academy of Calgary classes; distributing like information through the academy classroom communication software arrangement (Blackboard™); and placing posters around the University of Calgary campus.
Respondents were asked to complete an online survey that was expected to take approximately xv - xx minutes about their experience of sports injury. All potential respondents completed an informed consent class before taking the survey. The informed consent grade stressed the voluntary nature of the respondent's participation, the anonymity of the information provided, and directions should the respondent decide to withdraw from the study at any fourth dimension. Although efforts were fabricated to get a diverse sample of Academy of Calgary students in terms of gender, sport played, and level of play, ours is a convenience sample and is not representative of all University of Calgary students.
To measure Academy of Calgary students' experiences with sports injury, a novel quantitative survey instrument was created. The survey was administered through an online survey tool, Survey Monkey™ (Survey Monkey, 2012) . Students were first asked to provide basic sociocultural demographic information such as sex, historic period and country of origin (Canada or elsewhere). Next, their participation in sport was assessed in terms of what type of sport they played, what level they played at, and with whom they played.
Because of the variety of our sample in terms of athletic experience and time spent playing sport, we did not ask respondents well-nigh their actual experiences with sports injury. Instead, we asked them about their willingness to play through injuries. Get-go, we asked respondents to check off common injuries (concussion, torn ligament, muscle tear, sprains, bruising, abrasions, fractures, eye injuries, infection, cleaved nails, broken teeth…) that they would deem warranting medical attending. They were and so asked to charge per unit how many of those injuries would cause them to drib out of a competition or match. Based on their responses to these two sets of questions, a variable was generated that represents the percentage of injuries that they would be willing to play through.
In the mid-1990s, Nixon adult a scale to measure the normalization of pain and injury, chosen the Risk Hurting and Injury Questionnaire, which he used to study collegiate level athletes (Nixon, 1994; Nixon, 1996) . This scale has since been criticized both in terms of face validity and content validity (Walk & Wiersma, 2005) . Therefore, although nosotros use some of Nixon's original items in our report, nosotros also adapt and add questions from several qualitative academic sources in order to assess the various potential influences on a sports participant's decision to play while injured ( Emery, Meeuwisse, & McAllister, 2006; Fenton, & Pitter, 2010; Young & White, 1995; McEwen & Young, 2011 ). We attempted to include questions that reflected all the potential influences on sports participants' propensity to play while injured, and then conducted a cistron analysis on all the questions to discover emergent themes. A consummate list of the questions that were used to mensurate reasons for playing while injured is included in the Appendix, and the factor analysis is discussed afterwards in the newspaper.
three.2. Information Analysis
Once recruitment was complete, responses were downloaded from Survey Monkey™ and analyzed using SPSS statistical software version 20.0 (SPSS Inc., 2012) . To address our first enquiry question, "Who reports being willing to play sport while injured?" nosotros beginning conducted descriptive analyses on the sample to examine who reports existence willing to play while injured, examining demographic variables and sports-related variables such equally the type of sport played and the level of sport played.
To address our second enquiry question, "Why do they report being willing to play while injured?" we conducted a factor analysis on the questions about what influences a respondent to play through injury. These questions were originally created to encompass aspects of the four concepts outlined in the literature review: the sports ethic; athletic identity; culture of risk; and influence of others. The cistron assay was run to decide what groups of influences existed in this sample. The results of the factor analysis volition be discussed in detail in the results section.
Once nosotros determined the factors which affected respondents' willingness to play while injured, nosotros next utilized the demographic data from each participant to run across how these factors varied according to such social, cultural and demographic variables as sex activity, blazon of sport, age, years at academy, status on the squad, etc. Finally, nosotros ran a series of multiple regression analyses, to decide the joint effects of the sociocultural variables and the factors on the respondents' willingness to play through injuries.
4. Results
four.1. Sample Clarification
Table 1 summarizes the demographic, social, and cultural composition of the 275 Academy of Calgary students who successfully completed the online survey. Of these respondents, 86.9% (N = 239) had participated in a sport in the past year. The sample consisted of 177 females (64.iv%) and 98 males (35.6%). The majority,
Table 1. Sample descriptive statistics for select demographic and sociocultural variables of respondents, (n = 275).
82.5%, of the sample was born in Canada. Just over half of the respondents reported they had a coach or trainer. As expected with a survey targeting Academy students, 87.seven% of the sample was between the ages of eighteen and 23. Respondents cited over 42 distinct sports as their main sport. For the purposes of this projection, we categorized these sports as either "team sport" or "private sport." Fifty ii pct of respondents reported a team sport equally their primary sport.
Importantly, in that location was a wide range of competition levels represented in the sample. Forty five percent of respondent characterized their level of sport as "Casual/Recreational", followed by 23.4% who said they competed at the "Varsity or Provincial" level. Xix percent said they competed at the "Lodge" level, while xiii pct said they competed at the "National or Professional person" level.
Given the not-random sampling methods used to recruit respondents, the sample will not exist assessed for representativeness.
The main dependent variable of interest is the variable "pct of injuries willing to play through". This variable was generated by start asking respondents who said that they participated in sport in the past year (N = 239) to check off common injuries (concussion, torn ligament, muscle tear, sprains, bruising, abrasions, fractures, centre injuries, infection, broken nails, broken teeth…) that they would deem warranting medical attention. They were then asked to rate how many of those injuries would cause them to drop out of a contest or match. Based on their responses to these two sets of questions, a variable was generated that represents the percentage of injuries that they are willing to play through.
Approximately 30% of these respondents stated that they would non play through any of the injuries they previously cited as requiring medical attending. All the same, the remaining 70% stated that they would exist willing to play through from 5% - 100% of injuries. With the inclusion of those who would non play through any injuries, the mean of the variable "percent of injuries willing to play through" is twenty%, with a standard deviation of 20.9%. Scores ranged from 0 to 100%.
4.ii. Bivariate Analysis
Table two presents the bivariate relationships between the variable "percent of injuries willing to play through" and select demographic and sports-related covariates for those participants who played a sport in the past twelvemonth.
The independent variables that were statistically significantly related to the variable "pct of injuries willing to play through" (at p < 0.05) were the variables "sex" and "autobus/trainer". Women were willing to play through a college average percent of injuries compared to men (23.2% versus xv.8%). Those with a motorbus or trainer were willing to play through a college boilerplate percent of injuries compared to those without a passenger vehicle or trainer (23.4% versus xvi.4%). Chiefly, the level of participation, type of sport and country of origin are not significantly related to the percent of injuries an individual is willing to play through in the bivariate analyses. We assess their significance in multivariate analyses in Section 5.3, below.
Tabular array 2. Bivariate human relationship between the variable "Pct of injuries willing to play through" and select independent variables.
*p < 0.05 (two-tailed examination). Note: Results shown are results of t-test for divergence between means for variables with 2 categories, and ANOVA for variables with more than 2 categories.
4.iii. Factor Analysis
Table 3 below presents the factor assay of the questions used to assess what influences whether participants report being willing to play sport while injured. A detailed clarification of the questions included in each gene is available in the Appendix. A factor assay aims to examine the covariation among a set of variables (in this example 25 Likert scale questions) and to summarize the relationship betwixt variables past producing a gear up of factors (Kim & Mueller, 1978). This factor assay was run on 25 questions and individual scores were obtained on 5 factors. Varimax rotation was used to identify these five and coefficients below 0.60 were suppressed. Therefore, fifteen questions loaded on v factors, and 10 questions were suppressed from the assay. Together, these five factors explained over fifty% of the variance in the data.
Factor 1 (25% of variance explained; Cronbach's alpha = 0.744) includes the following questions: encouraged injured teammate to continue to play while injured; duty equally an athlete to play through pain; sacrifice body for sport if necessary; and no pain no gain. We titled this factor "civilization of pain". Gene 2 (ix% of variance explained; Cronbach'southward alpha = 0.762) includes the post-obit questions: chosen derogatory names if don't play while injured; pain behaviour ignored by teammates; and pain behaviour ignored by coach. We titled this factor "negative external pressure." Factor 3 (7% of variance explained; Cronbach's alpha = 0.634) includes the following questions: value of sport in social club; importance of sport in life; and time per week dedicated to sport. We titled this factor "sports value." Factor 4 (half dozen% of variance explained; Cronbach'southward blastoff = 0.697) includes the questions: prove myself to teammates; performance in every game is evaluated; have to prove myself to coach. Nosotros titled this gene "strive for distinction." Cistron v (5% of variance explained; Cronbach's alpha = 0.765) includes the following questions: remained on field due to weak sub; and remained on field due to being shorthanded. Nosotros titled this factor "situation." Together, these factors represent a set of complex reasons that respondents written report for being willing to play while injured.
Table 3. Factor analysis of influencers on willingness to play through injury.
Table 4 presents findings from the bivariate analysis of the five factors and select sociodemographic variables. Using the five factors that loaded, gene means were calculated and compared across sociodemographic variables. Sex was significantly related to mean factor scores on Factor ane (culture of pain) and Factor v (situation). Males scored significantly higher on Gene ane (culture of hurting) (0.243 ± 0.eleven, compared to −.135 + −.066 for females) and Factor 5 (situation) (0.083 ± 0.11, compared to −.046 + −.069 for females). Those who responded that they did take a bus or trainer scored significantly higher on Gene ii (negative external pressure) and on Factor iv (strive for distinction) compared to those who did not have a bus or trainer. Respondents who were born exterior of Canada scored significantly college on Factor 4 (strive for distinction) compared to Canadian built-in respondents. Respondents whose primary sport is a team sport scored significantly higher on Factor five (situation) compared to those whose chief sport is an individual sport. Unsurprisingly, national/professional and varsity/provincial athletes had significantly college hateful factor scores on Factor iii (sports value)and Factor iv (strive for distinction), compared to those who play at the casual/recreational or club level.
In the next section, nosotros behave multivariate regression analyses to determine which, if any, of these factors has an impact on the percent of injuries a respondent is willing to play through, decision-making for the sociodemographic variables.
4.4. Regression Analysis
Table v shows the full regression model including all factors and all sociodemographic covariates. Variables included in this analysis are: sexual practice, state of origin, passenger vehicle or trainer, primary sport (team versus individual), level of sport and all 5 factors.
Table 5 shows that in the complete model, 4 variables are significantly related to the percent of injuries a respondent is willing to play through at p < 0.05; sex activity, primary sport, Gene i (culture of pain) and Factor 5 (situation). Females will on boilerplate play through 9.4% (S.East. 2.8%) more than injuries than males, controlling for the other variables in the model. Those who participate in an private sport will, on average, play through v.8% (S.E. two.six%) more injuries than those who participate in squad sports, controlling for the other variables in the model.
Table 4. Mean factor scores past demographic variables.
Note: Mean factor scores reported as: Mean ± Standard Mistake. *p < 0.05 (two-tailed test). Note: Results shown are results of t-exam for difference between ways for variables with 2 categories, and ANOVA for variables with more ii categories.
Table 5. Regression of percent of injuries willing to play through on socio-demographic variables and factors.
*Note: Level of competition is included in this model equally an interval ratio level variable. Higher values indicate higher level of play.
In addition, respondents who score college on Gene i (culture of hurting) study that they are willing to play through a higher percentage of injuries than those who score lower on Cistron 1, controlling for sex, having a bus, country of origin, primary sport, level of competition and Factors 2 - v. Respondents who score higher on Factor v (situation) report that they are willing to play through a higher percentage of injuries than those who score lower on Factor 5, controlling for other variables in the model. Overall, this model explains 17.1% of the variance in scores on the "percent of injuries willing to play through" variable. Interestingly, although it was significant in the bivariate assay, having a coach does not influence the percentage of injuries participants are willing to play through once we command for the other sociodemographic variables and the five influence factors.
5. Discussion
From the bivariate assay and to reply the first research question about who reports beingness willing to play while injured, approximately 70% of the sample are willing to play while injured (beyond all levels and types of sport). The but demographic factors related to the percent of injuries an individual is willing to play through are sex activity and whether the individual has a charabanc. Women were willing to play through 23.2% of injuries on average, compared to men who were willing to play through 15.8% of injuries on average. Those with a coach or trainer were willing to play through 23.4% of injuries on average compared to those without a autobus or trainer who were willing to play through sixteen.4% of injuries on average.
In terms of why respondents report being willing to play through injury, we discovered five factors in our data: culture of hurting; negative external pressure; sports value; strive for stardom; and state of affairs. While these factors practise not map neatly onto the four concepts we covered in the literature review (the sports ethic; athletic identity; culture of risk; and influence of others) we believe they are related to previous literature equally follows. Start, the culture of hurting may indicate over-conformity to the sports ethic. Negative external pressure indicates the influence of others, just in a negative way. Sports value may indicate strong athletic identity. The strive for stardom represents aspects of both athletic identity and the influence of others (here in a positive way). Situation, over again, may point the influence of others although here the influencers are others involved in a specific squad competition.
Several socio-demographic variables were significantly related to the factor scores, indicating that different groups may be more or less influenced by the unlike factors. Level of competition was correlated with both sports value and strive for distinction, with respondents at higher levels of competition reporting higher values on both these factors. These findings suggest that the athletic identity is more relevant for those at higher levels of competition. Those who take a coach had higher average cistron scores on strive for distinction and negative external pressure level than those without a autobus, suggesting that those with a bus may identify more with the athletic identity and are more than influenced by others. Men scored higher, on average, on the culture of pain gene than women, suggesting that over-conformity to the sports ethic may exist more mutual among men than women. And finally, both men and those on teams (compared to those in individual sports) reported college boilerplate scores on the state of affairs factor, suggesting that they may be more than influenced by others, especially in particular competitive situations.
The multivariate assay indicates that just ii socio-demographic variables (sex and individual versus team sport) and merely ii factors (culture of pain and state of affairs) are significantly related to the per centum of injuries respondents report being willing to play through. In our data, level of contest and whether the respondent has a coach or not are not related to their willingness to play through hurting, once we business relationship for the effect of all the cistron scores and other socio-demographic variables.
Interestingly, although males reported higher levels of mean factor scores on the civilization of pain gene and the situation factor (which are both significant risk factors for playing while injured in the multivariate model), females still reported being willing to play through more than injuries than males, controlling for all other covariates. Once nosotros controlled for the other demographic variables and the factors, women were, on average, reporting that they were willing to play through 9.8% more injuries than their male person counterparts. Additionally, those who participate in individual sports were, on average, willing to play through v.8% more injuries compared to those who participate in team sports, net of all other covariates in the model. In our multivariate assay, variables such as level of contest or having a coach or trainer practise non seem to thing when it comes to a player's conclusion to play while injured.
The culture of pain also had a meaning influence on per centum of injuries a respondent was willing to play through―an increment of one unit on Gene 1 lead to respondents reporting a willingness to play through 6.0% more injuries, when controlling a variety of covariates and factors. And finally, the state of affairs was too a determinant of a respondents reporting their willingness to play through injuries, a 1 unit of measurement increase in Cistron v leading to a respondent's willingness to play through 3.1% more injuries, controlling for other variables in the model.
If we consider the civilisation of hurting factor to bespeak one aspect of over-conformity to the sports ethic, it can be argued that our data indicates that stronger adherence to the sports ethic affects both male person and female sports participants' willingness to play through injuries at all levels of play. These findings appear to run counter to the conclusions of many qualitative and quantitative studies concerning the reasons athletes play while injured (Nixon, 1993; Charlesworth & Immature 2004; Malcom 2006) . For example Malcom's (2006) written report of female baseball players theorized that those players who were college skilled or had more invested in their sport in terms of money and time, were more probable to attach to the sports ethic, and thus more than likely to play through the pain. Our study included a broad range of participants, in terms of level and blazon of sport. The relative insignificance of factors beyond the sport ethic and sexual practice in our findings may betoken that these variables but have an impact on athletes in specific settings (e.g. professional baseball players).
Many researchers take shown that there is little divergence between women and men in their adherence to the sports ethic (Charleswood & Young, 2004; Sabo 2004; Theberge, 1997 ). Interestingly, in our information it appears that although female person sports participants score lower on the civilisation of pain gene, they are more than willing to play while injured than men. Malcom (2006) establish that some females initially resisted the tenet of the sport ethic only somewhen conformed. Slogans such as "no pain, no proceeds" may not resonate as much with the university-aged women in our sample as they practise with the men, but the women announced to be more willing to play through injuries than the men. Our inquiry suggests that sports injury prevention programs need non just to include women, but indeed to be focused on them.
Equally suggested by others, sports medicine and sports injury prevention programs must also critically examine how sports participants at all levels of contest come to take the sports ethic, internalize the athletic identity, and and so get part of the civilisation of risk that exists within sport (Safai, 2003; Theberge, 1997) . Our information supports other researchers' findings that sports participants' willingness to play through pain is influenced by various people involved in sport, such as coaches, officials, teammates, parents and the institutions inside sports (Nixon, 1992; Malcolm, 2003; Hughes & Coakley, 1991) . This is of import when assessing strategies towards health promotion and injury reduction. Public health practitioners and educators must take into account that in one case the sports ethic is fully internalized it becomes difficult to employ injury reduction strategies.
Future inquiry should examine when in a child'southward development is the sports ethic internalized. Given the influence of the sports ethic at all levels and time commitment of sport, it may become internalized at one of a child's first interaction with sport in a structured way, namely, physical education classes in school. If so, the environment at school may be a context for adjustment of the factors that foster contest with one's peers and where ideas of masculinity and femininity, and peer pressure level all interact to create a culture of risk for students to button themselves beyond condolement to maintain in competition with one some other.
Limitations
This study is limited by a convenience sample, thus the results cannot be generalized to the larger public or the University of Calgary population. In addition, the sample was relatively homogenous in terms of historic period, years having played their main sport, country of origin, and indigenous group. The lack of variability in these 4 variables could have suppressed the potentially significant effects of these variables on the factors of injury rationalization. Some other limitation that could have biased the sample was an overrepresentation of more serious athletes rather than average university students in sport.
We did not measure the actual incidences of injury among respondents, just what they would consider to exist a significant injury, and what they would (or would not) play through. Respondents may have felt compelled to answer higher on playing through injuries because of their commitment to their sport, for example. Therefore, this survey only measures self-perception of injury and injury behaviour, not actual behaviour. In addition, the factor scores are also based on respondents' self-perceptions, since they were not asked most actual occurrences of behaviours.
six. Conclusion
Upon surveying 275 University of Calgary students regarding their willingness to play sports while injured, we found that respondents report existence willing to play through injury at every level of sports participation and in both squad and individual sports. I of the influences on a respondent'southward decision to increase the number of injuries they were willing to play through was their score on the civilization of pain cistron, which nosotros advise may indicate over-conformity to the sports ethic. Another important variable in this assay was sex. Women were willing to play through more than injuries than men, even when decision-making for other socio-demographic and psychological factors.
If information technology can be adamant which situations are more conducive to the adoption of the sports ethic, for instance, educational settings, it may be possible to change the environment of sport for future generation of athletes to avoid them harming their bodies past internalizing the value of playing through the pain. When planning sports injury prevention interventions, one must also acknowledge the role of the media in glorifying athletes who play through the pain, and the competitive environments in which all students learn.
Appendix. Survey Questions
Q11: How many years have you been playing this sport? (Fill in the blank)
Q15: On a scale from 1 - 10 how much do you value sport in society? (loaded on Factor 3)
Q16: How much fourth dimension per week do you dedicate to your main sport (not including travelling)? (loaded on Factor three)
ž More than than x hours per calendar week
ž 8 - 10 hours per calendar week
ž 5 - vii hours per week
ž 2 - 4 hours per week
ž 1 hr per calendar week
ž Under an hour a week
Q17: How would you rate the importance of sports in your life? (loaded on Cistron 3)
ž Extremely important
ž Moderately important
ž Slightly important
ž Not very important
Q21: Exercise you feel equally if you are in contest with those you train or practice with?
ž Yep
ž No
Q27: After receiving medical attention for an injury, have you lot ever disregarded doctors' communication regarding your injury?
ž Yes
ž No
Q29: If a boyfriend teammate or training companion were to get injured during a competition I would suggest that they should keep to play. (loaded on Cistron 1)
ž Strongly disagree
ž Disagree
ž Neither agree nor disagree
ž Agree
ž Strongly agree
Q34: I am expected to play through injuries.
ž Strongly disagree
ž Disagree
ž Neither agree nor disagree
ž Concord
ž Strongly agree
Q35: Stories from my teammates/training companions where they accept continued to participate in my sport despite injuries influence my conclusion to play while injured.
ž Strongly disagree
ž Disagree
ž Neither hold nor disagree
ž Agree
ž Strongly hold
Q36: I am willing to sacrifice my trunk for my sport if necessary. (loaded on Factor 1)
ž Strongly disagree
ž Disagree
ž Neither agree nor disagree
ž Agree
ž Strongly agree
Q37: I have never been encouraged past a teammate or training companion to continue to play while injured.
ž Strongly disagree
ž Disagree
ž Neither agree nor disagree
ž Concord
ž Strongly agree
Q38: My pain behaviour (limping, groaning) has been ignored by a teammate or training companion. (loaded on Factor two)
ž Strongly disagree
ž Disagree
ž Neither agree nor disagree
ž Agree
ž Strongly agree
Q39: I accept been called derogatory names for displaying hurting behaviour or taking fourth dimension off from my sport because of an injury. (loaded on Factor two)
ž Strongly disagree
ž Disagree
ž Neither agree nor disagree
ž Agree
ž Strongly concord
Q40: I feel information technology is my duty equally an athlete to play through pain. (loaded on Gene i)
ž Strongly disagree
ž Disagree
ž Neither agree nor disagree
ž Agree
ž Strongly agree
Q42: I have been scared to approach my coach or trainer regarding an injury for fright of being told to take time off.
ž Strongly disagree
ž Disagree
ž Neither agree or disagree
ž Agree
ž Strongly concord
Q43: My displays of pain behaviour (limping, groaning) have been ignored by a coach or trainer. (loaded on Factor 2)
ž Strongly disagree
ž Disagree
ž Neither agree or disagree
ž Agree
ž Strongly agree
Q44: I accept never been encouraged to return to my sport from an injury by my motorcoach or trainer.
ž Strongly disagree
ž Disagree
ž Neither hold or disagree
ž Agree
ž Strongly concord
Q48: I accept ignored an injury because of the importance of the game or competition.
ž Strongly disagree
ž Disagree
ž Neither agree or disagree
ž Agree
ž Strongly concord
Q49: I take remained on the field while injured because we would be shorthanded if I went off. (loaded on Cistron 5)
ž Strongly disagree
ž Disagree
ž Neither agree or disagree
ž Agree
ž Strongly hold
Q50: I accept remained on the field or connected to play while injured because my substitute would not be a stiff plenty replacement. (loaded on Gene five)
ž Strongly disagree
ž Disagree
ž Neither agree or disagree
ž Agree
ž Strongly concord
Q51: How exercise you lot feel about the following argument: "no pain, no gain"? (loaded on Gene 1)
ž Strongly disagree
ž Disagree
ž Neither concord or disagree
ž Agree
ž Strongly agree
Q53: I take to prove myself to my teammates or to those I train with. (loaded on Cistron four)
ž Strongly disagree
ž Disagree
ž Neither hold or disagree
ž Agree
ž Strongly agree
Q54: I have to show myself to my omnibus. (loaded on Factor 4)
ž Strongly disagree
ž Disagree
ž Neither agree or disagree
ž Agree
ž Strongly agree
Q55: My performance in every game or competition is evaluated and determines my placement. (loaded on Cistron 4)
ž Strongly disagree
ž Disagree
ž Neither hold or disagree
ž Agree
ž Strongly agree
Q56: I must play through pain to exist considered an athlete.
ž Strongly disagree
ž Disagree
ž Neither agree or disagree
ž Hold
ž Strongly agree
NOTES
*Respective author.
Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no conflicts of involvement.
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